• Home
• Learn And Do
• Indiana History
• America 1860 1900

Teacher Education and the Normal School Movement in Indiana

Though many felt that teachers were born, not made, the Midwest was also home to a coterie of progressive educators who believed in teaching pedagogy (the art and science of teaching). This idea led to the growth of "Normal," or teacher education, schools and colleges. In Indiana, the "official" normal school was Indiana State Normal School at Terre Haute. ISNS was founded in 1865, but did not open its door until 1870.1 Other, private normal schools such as Central Indiana Normal School in Ladoga and Central Indiana Normal College in Danville also existed. Normal schools sprouted across the nation between 1870 to 1890.

Normal schools rose upon the tide of thought that believed teaching was a "science" which could be taught and learned just as any other science. This was diametrically opposite the view held by many who felt teaching was an inborn faculty or talent, or that no formal teacher training was necessary. Many who exposed this view were precisely those who pushed young, untrained teachers, unprepared for their daunting, into country schoolrooms. Even the Superintendent of Iowa Schools did not think teacher training indispensable to classroom success, but instead pointed to what he considered the four primary characteristics needed to teach: knowledge of subject, uprightness of character, a desire to improve, and common sense.

Untrained teachers and their quality (or lack thereof), though, were the major complaint issued against rural schools by the "educational establishment." One Wisconsin school committee claimed that "poor teachers.... are the bane of the rural school." Officials at ISNS saw teacher education as a "logical necessity." These differing views notwithstanding, it is obvious that there was often a wide gulf between the quality of education offered rural students and their city cousins.

Normal schools were not the only means of training teachers. By tradition and state law, Indiana teachers were required to attend a county "teachers institute." These institutes were a prime learning ground for rural teachers. Institutes were 1-5 day gatherings in which those wishing to teach, inexperienced teachers, and even their older, experienced colleagues, came together to share teaching skills and knowledge. At these gatherings, experienced teachers or education professionals taught others to teach. Eventually much time at institutes was devoted to teaching methods. Institutes also appear to have been used to prepare would-be teachers to take the county teaching exam in order to obtain their license. These were often thorough, intense exams that sometimes began at 6:00 am and lasted all day. The failure rate for these difficult tests was often over 50%.2

Institutes were held yearly within each county. By 1886, Indiana required that each township also hold one township institute each month during the school year, usually on Saturday.3

But it was to normal schools that the burden of teaching teachers increasing fell. Proponents compared their to that of medical schools in training doctors and noted parallels between them. Both, they said, were dependent upon other sciences "for knowledge of that upon which it must operate." As medicine dealt with a healthy or unhealthy body, they felt, so education "deals with the healthy or diseased mind, and labors to stimulate and direct the proper and natural development of the one, or to restore the other to natural and right habits of action."4 To perform this valuable service to the nation required trained teachers.

Indiana State Normal School

Background

Indiana’s school Law of 1852, which paved the way for the development of the state’s system of public education, sparked many positive changes on the Hoosier school scene. Between 1855 and 1875 the length of the school year increased from 61 days to 130. The number of students grew from approximately 206,000 to over half a million. To educate this increased student population the number of teachers required rose from 4,000 to over 13,000.5 Though the number of teachers grew, it was by no means certain that these new teachers were qualified to handle the burden of educating the state’s young citizens. Obviously, thought had to be given to how these new teachers were going to be trained and their competence to do the job.

There had long been calls for the training of teachers. The first bill to call for the establishment of a normal school in Indiana was introduced in 1855, but nothing came of it. Similar legislation was re-introduced in 1865 and this time the idea took hold, though there is doubt that many considered it all that important an issue. The effort was soundly supported by the Indiana State Teachers Association (founded in 1854), which saw the benefits arising from the professionalization of teaching. Finally, the bill was signed into law on December 20, 1865.6

However, the bill authorizing the normal school did not name the site where it was to be located. That was left to an appointed board of trustees. Cities wishing to house the normal school had to be willing to put up at least $50,000.00. There was hardly a mad scramble among Hoosier cities fighting for the glory of being home to the school. In fact, only one, Terre Haute, sought that signal honor. In May of 1866, Terre Haute offered the necessary $50,000.00 in cash, plus another $25,000.00 in real estate. The "bid" was accepted and Terre Haute became home to Indiana State Normal School. Even then the state hardly felt a sense of urgency. Over the next few years the legislature finally appropriated funds for tuition, a library, and building. The cornerstone for the building was laid in August, 1867.7

While the building was being constructed a president was appointed and the curriculum devised. William A. Jones, Superintendent of Schools in Aurora, Illinois was named President and assumed the office in late 1869. He oversaw the establishment of a curriculum and devised a schedule that included 12-week terms, or quarters, for classes. Tuition was free (the state provided tuition costs), but students still had to pay for housing, living expenses, and food.8 On January 6, 1870 Indiana State Normal School opened its doors by welcoming 21 students to its yet to be completed building and inaugurating a new era in education in Indiana.9

ISNS, Early Years

William Jones early tenure as president was a rather fitful one. Many felt he was an inner directed man more concerned with fulfilling the institution’s mission than seeking publicity for the school and promoting its growth. But after some difficulties the institution began to make strides. It adopted a philosophy that thought it not only important to teach students how to teach, but also what to teach by giving them a good grounding in various subjects. In essence, it believed that knowledge of the subject was as important as how to teach it. Thus students were offered courses that taught them more detail about the subject.10

Though for a period (1874-1876) ISNS offered an "advanced course" of study (which doubled the normal two year full regular course of study) that would qualify students to teach in high schools, its emphasis remained on preparing teachers for the "common schools" of Indiana. Common schools went to the modern equivalent of the 8th grade. Typically the regular course offered 8 quarters. The first three quarters were devoted to the "common branches"(reading, writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, geography, etc) while the last five were given over to the "higher subjects" (algebra, geometry, literature, chemistry, history, etc.).11 The mid-1870s were a time of growth for ISNS, both in its educational quality and in the size of its student body. From its initial class of 21, the student body grew to over 400 by 1876. However, graduation rates remained low as many students stayed for only a few quarters or attended the school intermittently due to economic or other concerns.12 It was not unusual for students to attend Normal for a quarter or two and then return to their home areas, obtain a teaching license , and begin their careers in a one room country school.

ISNS, 1879-1886

ISNS President William Jones resigned in 1879 due to failing health; stewardship of the new school had evidently taken its toll. He was followed by George P. Brown, who quickly became the nexus for the first major controversy in the school’s history.13

Formerly the Superintendent of Schools in Indianapolis, Richmond, and New Albany, George P. Brown was named President of ISNS during the summer of 1879. Upon his appointment, The Indiana School Journal noted he would likely steer the school away from the exhaustive study of various subjects and place more emphasis on pedagogy and the mechanics of teaching. In other words, Brown’s philosophy was to concentrate on "teaching how to teach" and not spend too much time on educating students in any great depth on the subjects they would teach. A clue to his thinking was a sentence in the school’s annual report for 1879 which noted "The instruction given in a Normal School should regard, primarily, methods of teaching."14 However, it also stated that instruction should be given in "both the How and What to teach.15 Brown’s changes to the curriculum and emphasis on instructional methods over content upset many of the faculty.

As is often the case when a well-liked and respected leader is replaced, some of those who remained behind became Jones hagiolaters and his era became, to them, the "golden age" at ISNS. The faculty felt a great respect for Jones and his ideals that suffused the school. To them, Brown’s changes meant a step back. A directive from the ISNS Board, which seemingly gave more control on many matters to the president, sparked a revolt. The "Brown Rebellion" was instigated by five faculty members upset at Brown’s actions and perceived wrongs (their exact charges are unknown as they went unrecorded or were lost). These five (out of a faculty of only ten) formally protested to the board. The Board backed Brown. The five faculty members (Funnelle, Hodgin, Parr, Scoville, and Wilson) resigned. Despite losing half the faculty the school went on (the action had come to a head in early summer) pretty much as usual. Interestingly, some of the faculty that were hired to replace the dissidents were former professors who had worked under Jones and the holdovers were sympathetic to the departed president. So, in essence, the situation remained as before, except that the faculty now mainly kept their complaints an internal matter and tried to work with Brown.16 There appear to have been only minor lingering effects of the incident.

Brown eventually resigned in 1885 to go into "other work." He told a Terre Haute newspaper reporter that the problems with the faculty (he pointed out they felt he was much too lenient with students) played a small role in his decision, but was not the overriding reason. He felt he left behind a strong school, one that had the largest attendance of any "strictly normal school" in the nation and was satisfied that his work had been done. He later became the owner/editor of the Public School Journal in Illinois.17

Brown’s replacement was waiting in the wings. William Wood Parsons18 was a member of the first entering and graduating classes at ISNS. After his graduation in 1872 he taught for fours years in schools in Arcola, Illinois, and Gosport and Indianapolis, Indiana, but returned to Normal in 1876 and was to remain there until his retirement in 1920. It was Parsons who shepherded Normal back to normalcy and further established it as the pre-eminent normal school in Indiana and as a leader in the Midwest. By 1886 the school was settling into its role. Average attendance per quarter was around 400 students and the institution was set to grow.19

Attending ISNS, 1879-1881

Admission to ISNS was not a particularly rigorous endeavor. Qualifications were few and most who sincerely wished to attend and become teachers were able to fulfill their desire, so long as they could afford it.

Conditions of Admission

• Sixteen years of age if female, eighteen if male.
• Good Health.
• Satisfactory evidence of undoubted moral character.
• A written pledge from the applicant on file saying they would, as far as was practicable, teach in the common schools of Indiana a period equal to twice the time they attended Indiana State Normal, together with any other conditions imposed by the schools Board of Directors.
• Applicants must pass a fair examination in reading, penmanship, spelling, grammar, geography and arithmetic.20

These rather unrigid requirements seemed to have been rather rigidly enforced. The 1881 annual report noted that a much larger attendance would be possible if the school did not (rightly) enforce the provisions for attendance, particularly the pledge to teach twice as long in the public schools as spent attending Normal.21

Expenses were relatively low. Tuition to the school was free. The only "charge" to attend was a $1.00 janitor fee per term (imposed in 1879 because state had not appropriated enough funds to cover incidental expenses of school). Textbooks could be purchased or, after 1880, rented. The annual report noted that boarding with good families cost between $3.00 to $4.00 per week, and that some students joined "boarding clubs" for $2.00 to $2.50 per week.22

Thus, as there were no "campus" housing facilities, students were forced to make their own living arrangement and often became members of a boarding clubs. The manager or "purveyor" of the club found a housewife or family who agreed to furnish room, services like laundry, and board to students for a fee. The purveyor’s cut of the fee usually paid for his club expenses.23 Such boarding clubs had long been a part of the Indiana college scene and had been features of student life since the 1830s.24

Coursework/Terms

ISNS offered a variety of terms and course. About 60% of students only attended a single term, often in the spring after common schools had ended their school year. These were often teachers with some experience teaching in country schools who were looking for a bit of formalized schooling. Normal often arranged a special short (eight week) course of instruction for them. Though the school’s administrators and teachers knew this was simply not enough time to train a teacher, it fell under the heading of " a little training is better than none at all."25

The full course, which normally could be completed in two years, ran to eight or nine terms (nine in 1881) and sought to fully prepare the student to teach in a variety of school settings. Coursework started with the basics and moved to more advanced work which provided more in depth instruction of both subjects and pedagogy.

Normal saw three classes of students for which these courses were intended. The first, and largest, were "those wishing to prepare themselves for teaching in the lower grades of the common schools in country and town." These were usually, according to Normal’s annual report, students with a minimal education-- and little "mental discipline" resulting from little formal instruction-- who must be given both academic and professional instruction. The second group consisted of those who had attended good high schools or those who had not graduated high school, but had some teaching experience and were mature enough to handle the course work. The final class were those college graduates who sought the sort of professional training to prepare them to be school principals or superintendents.26

Student Body

ISNS attracted many more of the first two groups than the latter. Most who attended looked to teach in the common schools. Students from every part of Indiana and 12 other states matriculated at ISNS during its first eleven years. Most were the children of farmers (207 of 332 who attended in 1880-1881) or from "working" families. Less than 10% were the sons or daughters of professionals.27

Faculty

Like most institutions of its kind, ISNS did not boast a faculty graced with a string of letters following their names. Only four of the eleven faculty listed for 1880-1881 (see attached) had masters degrees. This was not uncommon as even universities during this often had "professors" without graduate degrees. Some like future ISNS president William Parsons had no education beyond their degree from ISNS.28 This should not be seen as a reflection of their abilities. Many of the faculty were dedicated, able teachers who were long honored by their students for the thoroughness and value of their instruction.

Notes

1. William O. Lynch, History of Indiana State Teachers College, 1
2. see Wayne Fuller, The Old Country School, 162-168
3. John W. Holcombe, The School Law of Indiana Including the Acts of 1885, 89-90
4. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1880), 8
5. Lynch, 1
6. Ibid., 14-15
7. Ibid., 16-19
8. Ibid., 38
9. Ibid., 28
10. Lynch, 65-67
11. Ibid., 55, 70-71.
12. Lynch, 71-73
13. Indiana State was the site of several controversies during its first fifty years. In 1892 Professor Arnold Tompkins was fired for what the board viewed as his "criticisms" of the school and board which led to student unrest to protest his firing (see Lynch, 138-153) and during WWI, Professor John J. Schlicher was fired for allegation (unfounded) that he was pro-German. For details of the Schlicher case, see Timothy Crumrin, "Holding a Course: Professor John J. Schlicher's Dismissal from Indiana State Normal." Indiana Magazine of History (March, 1992)
14. Lynch, 86-88; Indiana School Journal (November, 1879), 525
15. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1880), 9
16. Ibid., 92-105
17. Lynch, 110-113
18. for a more complete overview of Parsons, see Timothy Crumrin, The Papers of William Wood Parsons (Terre Haute, 1989)
19. Lynch, 118-127
20. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1880), 6-7
21. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1882), 12
22. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1880), 7
23. Lynch, 91
24. see Crumrin, Monroe and Bachelder, Indiana Alma Maters: Student Life at Indiana Colleges, 1820-1860 for details on boarding clubs and other aspects of antebellum student life in Indiana
25. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1880), 11
26. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1882), 12-13
27. Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of the State of Indiana, (1882), 10-11
28. Ibid., 6